The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream(气流发生器官），the producer of voice（声音发生器官）and the resonating cavities（声音共振器官）
3. Consonants(辅音）
Places of articulation(发音部位）：bilabial(双唇） Labiodentals（唇齿） dental（齿） alveolar（齿龈）post-alveolar（后齿龈） palatal（上颚） velar（软腭）glottal(声门）
Manners of articulation（发音方式）： stop/plosive（爆破），nasal（鼻音），retroflex（卷舌），liquid(流音)，lateral（边音），fricative（摩擦），affricate（破擦），glide（滑音）
4. Vowels (元音）
The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)
Part Three Phonology（音韵学、音位学） 1. phoneme(音位）：It is the smallest unit of a sound in a language, which can distinguish two words. // a distinctive(有区别的）sound in a language.
2. Allophone (音位变体）：It refers to any of the different forms of a phoneme. // The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs (最小对立体）：It refers to two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. // It is the word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(互补分布）：Allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution for they never occur in the same context. // Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment.
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质）of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节），stress（重音），word stress，sentence stress，pitch（音高）and intonation（语调）
Part Four Morphology（词法、形态学） It is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
4.1 Morpheme(词素、语素）
4.1.1. 定义：It is the minimal meaningful unit of word building in a language.
4.1.2. Types of morphemes: 根据独立程度，语素可分为自由语素(free morpheme，如happy, house)和附着语素(bound morpheme如词缀-ful, -ness,-er)：They are roots(词根），affix（词缀）and stem（词干）
4.1.3. Root（词根，如nation: internationalism）, affix(词缀，分前缀、后缀和中缀) and stem（词干，如relation/relationship: 在relationships中）
4.1.4. Inflectional affixes（屈折词缀，只有语法意义，如-s, -ing, -ed）and derivational affixes（派生词缀：有一定的词汇意义，往往改变词性，如-er）
4.2 Word-formation(构词法)
The processes of word variations signaling lexical relationships.
4.2.1 Compounding(合成法、复合法）：两个自由语素复合而成。Compound复合词brain+wash
4.2.2 Derivation (派生法）：增加前缀或后缀以构成新词. Im+proper 4.2.3 Conversion (转化)：词性的转化，如名词转化为动词 4.2.4 Invention(发明)：Coke, nylon
4.2.5 Blending（混成法）：一个词的开头与另一个词的结尾混合；两个词的开头部分混合：modem(modulator+demodulator)
4.2.6 Abbreviation / clipping(缩略法)：截取词的某一部分：截前部ad；截后部plane；截前后部flu
4.2.7 Acronym(首字母缩略法)：WTO；EU
4.2.8 Back-formation(逆构法)：把误以为是词缀的部分从较长的单词上去掉从而得到一个短词，如television——televise
4.2.9 Borrowing（借用）：从其他语言借用词汇，如atom希腊, cancer拉丁，mortgage法语, kung fu/tai chi, silk汉语
4.2.10. metanalysis (再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.
其他概念：Lexicon：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited.
Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words which is semantically and often syntactically restricted.
Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.
Part Five Syntax (句法学）
不同语言学理论对句子结构的研究：传统句法、结构主义方法、转换生成语法、系统功能语法等
5.1 Traditional syntax(传统句法)：
1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential (顺序）arrangement of words in a language.
2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）：the overall process of internal organization of a grammatical unit .
3. Syntactic function(句法功能）：the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers(修饰语）and complements（补语）etc.
4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case格 and countability.
5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.
6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.
7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.
8. tense 时态（现在时、过去时）and aspect体（完成体、进行体） 从句子结构的角度：三种基本机子结构类型：简单句、并列句、复合句 5.2 Structural approach结构主义方法
起源于索绪尔（Saussure），语言符号系统的两种基本关系：组合关系（syntagmatic）和聚合关系(paradigmatic)，分析：The boy kicked the ball.
直接成分分析法(Immediate Constituent Analysis, IC Analysis)，如：句子切割Poor John ran away with the bike.
5.3 Transformational-generative Grammar转换生成语法
美国形式语法学家N. Chomsky提出Universal Grammar（普遍语法），深层结构deep structure、表层结构surface structure，引起语言学的革命。语言是受规则支配的，人具有天生的语言习得机制（Language Acquisition Device, LAD） 5.4 Systemic-functional Grammar系统功能语法
英国语言学家Halliday提出的。他把语言看做社会符号，关注语言的实际使用。语言的三大元功能：概念功能ideational function、人际功能interpersonal function、语篇功能textual function
Part Six Semantics语义学 Semantics is the study of meaning.
6.1 Semantic triangle语义三角(The Ogden & Richards’s triangle)，图示如下：
这个三角形包含以下几点含义:
(1) Concept (概念) \\ Thought (思想) 是和Referent (所指物) \\ Thing (事物) 相联系的,这种联系是直接的联系。“概念”是在客观事物的基础上概括而成的。换句话说,概念是客观事物在头脑中的反映。因此,二者之间用实线连接,表示A Concept refers to a Thing (概念反映客观事物) 。
(2) Concept 与Symbol (表意符号) \\ Word (词)之间也有直接联系。概念是个抽象的东西,它要通过“表意符号”(即词) 才能表达出来。因此二者之间也是实线,表示A word symbolizes a concept (词表示概念) 。
(3) Symbol \\ Word 与Referent \\ Thing 之间没有直接的、必然的联系,也就是说二者之间带有“任意性”(或是“约定俗成”的) 。因此用虚线将它们连接起来,表示A Word Stands for a Referent (词代表所指物) 。
正是由于词与所指物之间无必然的联系,所以同一个事物可以用不同的词来表示。例如“狗”这个概念就可以用不同的词来表达:英语为dog,德语为hund,西班牙语为pero,而法语为chien。以传统的语义三角理论观点来看,Word 要通过Concept 才能与Referent 产生联系, 所谓Meaning(意义) 就是Word(一种表意符号) 与Referent (表意符号所代表的事物) 之间的联系。 6.2 Sense Relations意义关系
Synonymy同义关系：stylistic synonyms文体同义词：buy-purchase, emotive synonyms情感同义词：thrifty-stingy, dialectal synonyms方言同义词：underground-subway
Antonymy反义关系：分三类，gradable antonymy：long-short, complementary antonymy：male-female, converse/relational antonymy：buy-sell Hyponymy上下义关系：上义词plant——下义词flower, tree grass Polysemy多义关系
Homonymy同音（同形）异义关系：homophone (there/their), homograph (bow), homonym (bear)
6.3 Componential Analysis语义成分分析
结构主义语义学家把词义分解成成分特征（semantic features），如：boy[+concrete], [+animate], [+human], [+male], [-adult]
1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure's \theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） \bond.（相关联系）
2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）
3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.
4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as \情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应）it calls forth in the hearer.\
5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life.
7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分）analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms. Part Seven Pragmatics语用学
It is the study of meaning in context. 语义学与语用学的区别：context语境 7.1 Speech Act Theory言语行为理论 英国哲学家John Austin提出。人们用语言来做事。说话人在说话时可同时完成三个动作：locutionary act言内行为、illocutionary act言外行为、perlocutionary act言后行为
7.2 言语行为的分类：美国语言哲学家Searle把言外行为分为5类：representative阐述性言语行为, directive指令性言语行为, commissive承诺性言语行为, expressive表达性言语行为, declaration宣告性言语行为
7.3 Cooperative Principle合作原则：说话人和听话人之间为了达到某个共同交际目标形成的一种默契和原则。
英语专业八级TEM8语言学复习辅导
